Skip to main content
Botanical Studies
Download PDF
  • Original Article
  • Open access
  • Published:

Vegetation diversity pattern during spring season in relation to topographic and edaphic variables in sub-tropical zone

Botanical Studies volume 64, Article number: 25 (2023) Cite this article

Abstract

Background

The present study was conducted to explore the diversity pattern of spring vegetation under the influence of topographic and edaphic variables in sub-tropical zone, District Malakand. In the present vegetation study, 252 species of 80 families were recorded in the study area. It included 39 species of trees, 43 species of shrubs, 167 species of herbs and 3 climber species. As a whole, 12 communities were established on the basis of topographic and edaphic characteristics in 12 different stations.

Results

The results of the present study revealed that all diversity indices (species diversity, evenness index, species richness index, maturity index) during spring showed that the communities in plains lying at lower altitudes had higher diversity while the communities formed at high altitudes had lower diversity. The results of the similarity index showed that there was low similarity (below 50%) amongst the communities in different stations.

Conclusions

It can be concluded that variations in topographic and edaphic factors affect species diversity and communities pattern.

Background

Species distribution modelling (SDM) is among the wide-ranging approaches used by contemporary ecologists, conservationists and forest managers to infer environmental variables (Khan et al. 2022; Correia Filho et al. 2023; Chandra et al. 2023) influencing past, current, or upcoming species distribution pattern. Vegetation is the collective growth of plants combine together in a certain area that is the outcome interaction of many factors like elevation, topography, soil characteristics, species composition and biotic interferences (Ahmad et al. 2014; Mandal and Joshi 2014; Abdo et al. 2022). It is the most significant biotic component as it regulates and maintain the ecosystem. Species diversity expresses community structure, composition and habitat conditions (Haq et al. 2022; Jamil et al. 2022). The distribution of plant species within communities are often regulated by climate or climate-influenced ecological factors (Shaheen et al. 2011a, b). Therefore, diversity tends to increase as the environment becomes more favorable and more predictable (Ahmad et al. 2022; De Bello et al. 2013; Hassan et al. 2022; Ilyas et al. 2020; Khan et al. 2014; Kumar and Sharma 2014; Majeed et al. 2021b; Malik and Husain 2006; Nisar et al. 2014; Pande et al. 2002; Qureshi et al. 2012; Rashid et al. 2018; Shah et al. 2014; Shaheen et al. 2012; Ter Braak 1987; Tiwari and Mishra 2016; Wang et al. 2016). It may be attributed that differences in the altitude, aspect and topography results in the variations in species diversity (Moeslund et al. 2013; Dar and Sundarapandian 2016). Climate is a key factor which strongly affect the vegetation (Ali et al. 2017; van Breugel et al. 2019). Among the climatic factors, altitude is the principal controlling factor in vegetation growth. It is an important factor affecting species composition and structure. Variations in plant species composition along altitude is well establishment phenomenon. Aspecthas great influence on the vegetation density, distribution and diversity (Bocksberger et al. 2016; Khan et al. 2019b). Its prediction is of prime importance for the forest ecosystem conservation and management. Composition and diversity of vegetation is reflecting by the aspect and study of which is of a central theme in vegetation ecology. Topography is the key controlling factor in vegetation growth. Topography is considered to exert influences on the plant distribution at regional and landscape levels (Shaheen et al. 2011a, b; Leonti et al. 2015; Ali et al. 2017). Similarly, edaphic factors have an important role in plant growth and development. Soil properties are found to be remarkably correlated with the formation of plant communities (Malik 2013; Silva et al. 2021). Differences in the soil and topographic factors brings variations in species diversity, richness, evenness and maturity among different ecological communities (Khan et al. 2019a; Abdo 2018; Caballero-Serrano et al. 2019). Several studies (Khan et al. 2017a, b; Rahman et al. 2021) have been conducted on vegetation under topographic and edaphic aspects in different parts of the world. The detailed study objectives include, (1) to describe the diversity pattern of the communities under topographic and edaphic factors in subtropical zone, District Malakand (2)To asses potential distribution of vegetation under current and future climate change scenarios and (3)Identifying the most influential climatic factors influencing the spread of vegetation.

Materials and methods

Study site

District Malakand is the sub-tropical zone, situated to the northern side of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, in the outer Hindukush mountains range (Ahmad et al. 2019). It is located 2705 feet above the sea level. District Malakand is geographically located 34° 35′ NL and 71° 57′ EL (Sciences 2022). It is enclosed by District Swat in the NE, District Dir (L) in the N, District Buner in the E, Districts Charsadda and Mardan in the S and Districts Bajaur and Mohmand in the W (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1
figure 1

Map of the study area, generated by Arc GIS showing sampling sites (red dots)

Full size image

Vegetation sampling

For assessing vegetation, the area was divided into 12 representative stations viz; S1–S12 (Table 1). These stations were selected on the basis of altitude, aspect and landscapefeatures. The vegetation structure was analyzed using quadrat method such that quadrats of 1 m × 1 m were used for herbs, 5 m × 5 m for shrubs and 10 m × 10 m for trees.

Table 1 Topographic features of representative stations in District Malakand
Full size table

Physicochemical analyses of soil samples

About 1 kg soil samples up to 15 cm in depth were collected from each site. Physicochemical analyses of these soil samples were carried out in the Soil Science Laboratory of the Agricultural Research Institute (ARI), Tarnab, Peshawar. Soil texture was determined using a hydrometer method. The CaCO3 concentration was determined by acid neutralization method (Khan et al. 2017a, b; Jamil et al. 2022), organic matter was determined using the Walky-Black procedure (Ahmad et al. 2016; Rahman et al. 2016), soil nitrogen was determined using the Kjeldhal method (Rahman et al. 2016), soil pH was determined by testing a 1:5 soil: water suspension with a pH meter (Ali et al. 2017; Haq et al. 2022; Jamil et al. 2022), electrical conductivity was determined by testing a 1:5 soil: water suspension with a conductivity meter (Bano et al. 2018). Phosphorus and potassium were determined using the method described by Bano et al. (2018) and Khan et al. (2019b) respectively. Total soluble salts (TSS) were determined by the recommended method of (Evaluation et al. 2012). Soil moisture content was determined by the gravimetric method as Pohl et al. (2012) and De Vries et al. (2013).

Data analysis

Various phytosociological procedures were used to assess the vegetation structure of the study area. Density, cover and frequency of each species was recorded and were converted into its relative values. The relative values of each parameter (Density, cover, frequency) for species were summed to get the importance values as (IV = R. D + R. C + R. F). Importance value of each species in a particular family was added together to give rise FIV for all the quantitatively recorded families. Biological spectra were determined using the approach of (Malik 2013; Majeed et al. 2022c, d). Similarity index was determined by using Sørensen similarity coefficient (Ali 2011). Shannon–Wiener diversity index (H \(\mathrm{^{\prime}}\)) was calculated following the method outlined in Shaheen et al. (2011b) and Jamil et al. (2022). The Simpson's diversity index was calculated according to the method given in Haq et al. (2022). Species richness was calculated using the formula provided in Gilchrist et al. (2018). The evenness index (J) and maturity index (MI) of sampled vegetation were calculated as per available literatures (Shaheen et al. 2011a, c). In order to determine the relationship of vegetation and environmental variables, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) ordination for both species and sites were used (Leps and Smilauer 2006; Khan et al. 2020). Furthermore, the relationship of various environmental variables with diversity index (H'), species diversity index (SDI), species evenness (J), species richness (d), and maturity index (MI) of vegetation were emphasis by correlation and regression analysis via using SPSS (version 20). The homogeneity of the community (Bürzle et al. 2017) was calculated by using Raunkiaer’s law of frequency (Khan et al. 2013). The distribution pattern was calculated according to Ali et al. (2017).

Results

Vegetation diversity

Quantitative analysis of vegetation during spring enlisted 252 species of 80 families in the study area. It included 39 species of trees, 43 species of shrubs, 167 species of herbs and 3 climber species. Based on FIVs, Mimosaceae (FIV = 998.07) was the leading family followed by Polygonaceae (FIV = 596.02), Papilionaceae (FIV = 588.44), Moraceae (FIV = 532.54), Lamiaceae (FIV = 504.15), Asteraceae (FIV = 492.33), Rhamnaceae (FIV = 484.65), Sapindaceae (FIV = 479.4), Myrtaceae (FIV = 431.58) and Asclepiadaceae (FIV = 399.72) (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Leading plant communities based on family importance value FIV during spring

Full size image

Communities pattern

In the research area as a whole, twelve communities were established with its structural composition as:

Acacia-Lantana-Emex (ALE) community

ALE community was established in S1 at low altitude (494–520 m) having plain landscape. This community was formed by Acacia nilotica, Lantana camara and Emexspinosus with IV = 90.92, 76.35, 20.78 respectively (Table 2). This community comprised a total of 92 species (13 trees, 9 shrubs, 69 herbs and 1 climber). The associated species in tree stratum included Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Ziziphus mauritiana and Acacia modesta. Calotropis procera, Ziziphus nummularia and Justicia adhatoda were other important species in shrub stratum. Arenaria serpyllifolia, Euphorbia helioscopia and Galium aparine were other dominant species of herb stratum. The leading life form of ALE community was therophytes (60.9%) and the leaf size spectrum was dominated by nanophylls (42.4%) followed microphylls (33.7%) (Table 3). This community preferred to grow on sandy loam soil (54% sand, 44% silt, 2% clay). The soil was alkaline (8.1 pH) with 0.12 dS−1 EC. The other soil variables included 0.038% TSS, 7.5% CaCO3, 0.65% OM, 0.032 mg/kg N, 15.4 mg/kg P and 110 mg/kg K (Table 4).

Table 2 Quantitative aspects of vegetation from District Malakand
Full size table
Table 3 Biological spectrum of plant communities in the studied area, District Malakand
Full size table
Table 4 Environmental variables of the studied area, District Malakand
Full size table

Acacia-Dodonaea-Medicago (ADM) community

ADM community was established at S2 at 496–660 m altitude in plain landscape. This community was dominated by Acacia modesta (IV = 107.74) in tree stratum, Dodonaea viscosa (IV = 66.29) in shrub stratum and Medicago minima (IV = 23.74) in ground stratum (Table 2). This community included a total of 81 species (7 trees, 11 shrubs, 62 herbs and 1 climber). Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Ziziphus mauritiana were codominant species of tree stratum. Saccharum griffithii, Justicia adhatoda and Sageretia thea were the important species in shrub stratum. Bromus pectinatus, Calendula arvensis and Anagallis arvensis were the other important herbs. The life form spectrum of ADM community was dominated by therophytes (56.8%). The leaf size spectrum was dominated by nanophylls (40.7%) followed by microphylls (35.8%) (Table 3). Soil textural class was sandy loam with 58% sand, 40% silt and 2% clay. Moisture contents was 4.2%. Soil pH value was 8.1, EC 0.11 dSm−1, TSS 0.035%. The least CaCO3 was found for this community which was 6.8%. Soil organic matter was 0.72%, N 0.036 mg/kg, P 8.0 mg/kg and K 120 mg/kg (Table 4).

Acacia-Justicia-Medicago (AJM) community

AJM community was established at S3 in the south aspect of the hilly landscape at high altitude (625–1050 m). This community was comprised a total of 63 species (5 trees, 16 shrubs, 41 herbs and 1 climber). This community was dominated by Acacia modesta in tree stratum, Justicia adhatoda in shrub stratum and Medicago minima in herbaceous stratum having IV of 147.00, 64.25, 32.04 respectively (Table 2). The codominant tree species were Monotheca buxifolia and Acacia nilotica while Dodonaea viscosa, Otostegia limbata and Sageretia thea were the codominant shrubs. The codominant species in herb stratum were Arenaria serpyllifolia, Erodium malacoides and Lactuca dissecta. The life form spectrum of AJM community was dominated by therophytes (30.2%), followed by hemicryptophytes (27.0%). The leaf size spectrum showed microphylls (42.9%) and nanophylls (30.2%) as the leading leaf size classes (Table 3). This community preferred to grow on sandy loam soil with 60% sand, 36% silt and 4% clay. Moisture contents was 4.5%, pH 8.0, EC 0.11 dsm−1 and TSS 0.035%, OM 0.72%, N 0.036 mg−kg, P 5.4 mg−kg and K 95 mg −kg. The maximum CaCO3 (10.0%) was observed in soil samples of this community (Table 4).

Dodonaea-Pinus-Stellaria (DPS) community

DPS community was established in S4 at north aspect of hilly landscape at high altitude (756–1072 m). This community was composed of a total of 56 species (9 trees, 9 shrubs and 38 herbs). The dominant species were Dodonaeaviscosa in shrub stratum, Pinus roxburghii in tree stratum and Stellaria media in herb stratum with IVs of 115.36, 114.95, 49.85 respectively (Table 2). Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Ailanthus altissima in tree stratum while Otostegia limbata, Mallotus philippensis and Daphne mucronata in shrub stratum were the dominant species. Arabidopsis thaliana, Micromeria biflora and Nepeta griffithii were the dominant species of the herb stratum. The life form spectrum of DPS community was dominated by therophytes (35.7%) followed by hemicryptophytes (26%). The leaf size spectrum was dominated by microphylls (39.3%) followed by nanophylls (33.9%) (Table 3). The soil texture of this community was sandy loam with 60% sand, 38% silt and 2% clay. Moisture contents was 6.8%, pH 8.0, EC 0.11 dSm−1, TSS 0.035%, CaCO3 8.75%, OM 0.69%, N 0.034 mg −kg, K 110 mg – kg. The least P was found for this community which was 2.2 mg −kg (Table 4).

Calotropis-Melia-Euphorbia (CME) community

CME community was established at S5 in plain landscape at middle altitude (670–800 m). This community was dominated by Calotropis procera, Melia azedarach and Euphorbia helioscopia having IVs of 74.89, 57.54, 40.35 respectively (Table 2). This community included a total of 66 species (16 trees, 8 shrubs and 42 herbs). The codominant species among trees included Robinia pseudo-acacia (IV = 49.56), Ailanthus altissima (IV = 37.23) and Populus nigra (IV = 34.36). The codominant species among shrubs included Rosa multiflora, Vitex negundo and Ziziphus nummularia. The codominant species among herbs included Poa annua, Taraxicum officinale and Morea sisyrinchium. The life form spectrum of CME community was dominated by therophytes (54.5%). The leaf size form spectrum was dominated by nanophylls (43.9%) followed by microphylls (28.8%) (Table 3). The soil samples of this community contained 54% sand, 42% silt and 4% clay. Moisture contents was relatively high (9.1%). Soil pH was 8.0, EC 0.12 dSm−1, TSS 0.038%, CaCO3 7.5%, OM 0.79%, N 0.039 mg −kg, P 7.7 mg – kg and K 110 mg – kg (Table 4).

Calotropis-Melia-Stellaria (CMS) community

CMS community was developed at S6 in plain landscape at middle altitude (612–675 m). This community was dominated by Calotropis procera, Melia azedarach and Stellaria media having IVs of 65.01, 59.62, 35.99 respectively (Table 2). This community included a total of 66 species (18 trees, 10 shrubs and 38 herbs). The associated trees species included Populus nigra, Ailanthus altissima and Morus nigra among trees while the associated shrubs species included Vitex negundo, Ziziphus nummularia and Lantana camara. Emexspinosus, Centaurea iberica and Euphorbia helioscopia were the associated herbs. The life form spectrum of CMS community was dominated by therophytes (47.0%). The leaf size spectrum was dominated by nanophylls (34.8%) followed by microphylls (33.3%) (Table 3). Soil texture was sandy loam with sand (58%), silt (36%) and clay (6%). Moisture contents was less (4.5%), pH 8.0. EC was 0.11 dSm−1, TSS 0.035%, CaCO3 8.3%, OM 0.69%, N 0.034 mg −kg. The soil samples contained high quantity of P (14.8 mg – kg) and K 120 mg −kg (Table 4).

Pinus-Dodonaea-Tulipa (PDT) community

PDT community was established at S7 in the north aspect of the hilly landscape at high altitude (690–1110 m). This community was dominated by Pinus roxburghii, Dodonaea viscosa and Tulipa clusiana having IVs of 63.44, 62.53, 30.96 respectively (Table 2). This community included a total of 76 species (17 trees, 19 shrubs, 39 herbs and 1 climber). The associated species in tree layer included Olea ferruginea, Pyrus pseudopashia and Phoenix sylvestris. The associated shrubs included Rubus fruticosus, Saccharum griffithii and Myrsine africana while the associated herbs included Plantago lanceolata, Scilla griffithii and Bromus pectinatus. The life form spectrum of PDT community was dominated by therophytes (27.6%) followed by nanophanerophytes (19.7%). The leaf size spectrum was dominated by microphylls (43.4%) followed by nanophylls (31.6%) (Table 3). Soil texture of this community was loam with 48% sand, 44% silt and 8% clay. Moisture contents was higher (12.5%). Soil pH was 8.0, EC 0.11 dSm−1, TSS 0.035%. The least CaCO3 (6.8%) while maximum OM (0.86%), N (0.043 mg – kg) and P (22.8 mg – kg) was observed in soil samples of this community. The soil samples contained 98 mg −kg Potassium (Table 4).

Acacia-Dodonaea-Cynodon (ADC) community

ADC community was established at S8 in south aspect of hilly landscape at middle altitude (534–829 m). This community was formed by Acacia modesta, Dodonaea viscosa and Cynodon dactylon having IVs of 74.67, 59.78, 44.26 respectively (Table 2). This community included a total of 53 species including 14 trees, 15 shrubs, 23 herbs and 1 climber. The associated species included Olea ferruginea, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Dalbergia sissoo among trees. The associated species in shrub stratum included Justicia adhatoda, Cocculus pendulus and Saccharum griffithii. The associated herbs species included Lactuca dissecta and Farsetia jacquemontii in herbs. The life form spectrum of ADC community was dominated by therophytes (34.0%) and hemicryptophytes (21.6%). The leaf size spectrum was dominated by microphylls (39.6%) followed by nanophylls (28.3%) (Table 3). Soil of this community was sandy loam with 64% sand,34% silt and 2% clay. Moisture contents was 5.7%, pH 8.0, EC 0.12 dSm−1, TSS 0.038%, CaCO3 8.0%, OM 0.82%, N 0.041 mg/kg, P 19.4 mg/kg and K 100 mg/kg (Table 4).

Saccharum-Populus-Silybum (SPS) community

SPS community was established at S9 in plain landscape at low altitude (468–517 m). This community was dominated by Saccharum bengalense, Populus nigra and Silybum marianum with IVs of 46.76, 38.82, and 36.24 respectively (Table 2). This community included a total of 63 species (15 trees, 14 shrubs and 34 herbs). Morus nigra, Melia azedarach and Broussonetia papyrifera among trees were the dominant species. Calotropis procera, Ipomoea carnea and Rosa multiflora among shrubs were the dominant species while Euphorbia helioscopia, Stellaria media and Phalaris minor were other important species among herbs. The life form spectrum of SPS community was dominated by therophytes (42.7%). Nanophylls (34.9%) and mesophylls (31.7%) dominated the leaf size spectrum of SPS community (Table 3). Soil of this community was loam with 48% sand, 42% silt and 10% clay. Minimum pH value was recorded in the soil samples of this community (pH = 7.9). Moisture contents was 6.7%, EC 0.10 dSm−1, TSS 0.032%. The maximum CaCO3, (9.0%), OM (0.86%) N (0.043 mg/kg) and K (140 mg/kg) was recorded in the soil samples of this community while P was 6.2 mg/kg (Table 4).

Vitex-Leucaena-Agrostis (VLA) community

VLA community was established at S10 in watercourse landscape at low altitude (463–520 m). This community was dominated by Vitex negundo, Leucaena leucocephala and Agrostis viridis having IVs of 89.26, 61.16, 48.85 respectively (Table 2). This community included a total of 59 species (12 trees, 11 shrubs and 36 herbs). Populus nigra, Eucalyptus camaldulensis and Broussonetia papyrifera among trees were the other dominant species while Arundo donax, Ipomoea carnea and Debregeasia salicifolia among shrub stratum. Mentha longifolia and Nasturtium officinale were other dominant species of herb stratum. The life form spectrum of VLA community was dominated by hemicryptophytes (23.0%) followed by therophytes (21.3%). The leaf size spectrum was dominated by microphylls (42.4%) followed by mesophylls (27.1%) (Table 3). The soil texture of this community contained sand (60%), silt (38%) and clay (2%). The maximum moisture contents (20.9%) was observed in soil samples of this community. This community showed soil pH value of 8.1, EC 0.20 dSm−1, TSS 0.064%, CaCO3 7.5%, OM 0.69 mg/kg, N 0.034 mg/kg, P 4.0 mg/kg and K 110 mg/kg (Table 4).

Ziziphus-Morus-Emex (ZME) community

ZME community was established at S11 in plain landscape at low altitude (430–454 m). This community was dominated by Ziziphus nummularia, Morus nigra and Emex spinosus with IVs of 81.76, 45.74, 30.24 respectively. This community included a total of 68 species (13 trees, 9 shrubs and 46 herbs) (Table 2). The other associated species among trees included Acacia nilotica, Populus nigra and Melia azedarach. The other dominant species among shrubs included Calotropis procera, Ipomoea carnea and Saccharum bengalense while herbs included Euphorbia helioscopia, Medicago polymorpha and Salvia moorcroftiana. The life form spectrum of ZME community was dominated by therophytes (49.3%). The leaf size spectrum was dominated by microphylls (35.3%) followed by nanophylls (33.8%) (Table 3). The soil samples of this community had 54% sand, 44% silt and 4% clay with maximum pH (8.5). Moisture contents was 6.5%. EC 0.20 dSm−1, TSS 0.064%, CaCO3 7.8%, OM 0.79%, N 0.039 mg/kg, P 5.7 mg/kg and K 90 mg/kg (Table 4).

Acacia-Dodonaea-Arenaria (ADA) community

ADA community was established at S12 in south aspect of hilly landscape at middle altitude (501–688 m). This community was dominated by Acacia modesta, Dodonaea viscosa and Arenaria serpyllifolia with IVs of 86.44, 80.61, 19.97 respectively. This community included a total of 86 species (14 trees, 12 shrubs and 60 herbs) (Table 2). Olea ferruginea, Ailanthus altissima and Eucalyptus camaldulensis were associated species in tree stratum. Justicia adhatoda, Otostegia limbata and Colebrookea oppositifolia in shrub stratum while Micromeriabiflora and Ajuga bracteosa were associated species in herb stratum. The life form spectrum of ADA community was dominated by therophytes (45.3%). The leaf form spectrum was dominated by microphylls (41.9%) followed by nanophylls (34.9%) (Table 3). The soil texture contained 62% sand, 32% silt and 6% clay. Moisture contents was 5.9%, pH 8.1, EC 0.11dSm−1, TSS 0.035%, CaCO3 8.50%, OM 0.65%, N 0.032 mg/kg, P 4.2 mg/kg and K 96 mg/kg (Table 4).

Diversity indices

In the present study, the Shannon–Weaver diversity index (H′) and Simpson diversity index varied from 3.30 to 3.98 and 0.02 to 0.06 respectively (Table 5). The highest H′ (3.98) was recorded at S1. It was followed by S12 (H′, 3.94). Similarly, H′ values recorded in S2 and S11 were respectively 3.86 and 3.83. The lowest species diversity index values (H′ = 3.30) were found for S4, S8 (H′ = 3.50) and S10 (H′ = 3.53). These results are also verified by Simpson diversity index. The values of the evenness index varied from 0.82 to 0.91 (Table 5). The highest value of evenness index (0.91) was found in S11. It was followed by S1, S2, S8, S12, these all stations had evenness value of 0.88. The lowest evenness index was found in S4 and S3 that was respectively 0.82 and 0.86. The values of species richness index ranged from 9.00 to 14.10 (Table 5). The maximum species richness index (14.10) was found in S1. It was followed by S12 and S2 with 13.35 and 12.44 respectively. The lowest species richness index (8.81) was recorded in S8 and 9.00 in S4. The values of maturity index ranged from 25.66 to 35.76 (Table 5). The maximum maturity index (35.76) was found in S10 followed by S9 (35.71) and S6 (31.36). The least MI value (25.66) was found in S8 followed S2 (26.42) and S12 (26.63). The similarity was highest (39.8%) between S1 and S11. The second highest similarity (38.3%) was recorded between S5 and S6. On the other hand, the least similarity (10.2%) was recorded between S3 and S10 (Table 6).

Table 5 Diversity index, evenness, species richness and maturity index of the spring vegetation
Full size table
Table 6 Similarity among different stations of the studied area
Full size table

CCA ordination and influence of environmental variables on diversity index (H'), species diversity index (SDI), evenness (J), species richness (d) and maturity index (MI)

The environmental variables, namely pH, EC, TDS, CaCO3, OM, P, K, clay, silt, sand, MC, altitude and aspect, play a significant role in shaping vegetation and its characteristics, such as diversity index, species diversity index, evenness, richness, and maturity index. The red arrow in the CCA ordination biplot represent the environmental variables, while the green triangle demonstrates the species (Fig. 3a). Similarly, the blue diamond represents the sampled sites (Fig. 3b). The length of arrow in the ordination biplot demonstrates the dimension between various environmental variables and their correlation. Variables aligned along the same axis indicate a positive relationship, whereas those positioned in opposite directions reveals a negative relationship. The CCA ordination demonstrates the species environment-relationship for axes 1 (0.988), 2 (0.963), 3 (0.937), and 4 (0.911) (Table 7). The sum of all eigenvalues and canonical eigenvalues were 10.833 and 2.776 respectively. The permutation test demonstrated F (3.756) and p (0.002). The CCA ordination biplot demonstrates that vegetation in the first quadrant is primarily influenced by sand, MC, TDS and EC. The vegetation of second quadrant of CCA is associated with aspect, altitude, and phosphorus (P). The vegetation in the third quadrant shows association with clay, CaCO3, OM and pH, whereas silt and potassium (K) are associated with vegetation in the fourth quadrant of CCA ordination.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA) ordination biplot of a 252 species, and b sites ordination based on influence of various environmental variables

Full size image
Table 7 Summary of CCA ordination of vegetation and environmental variables of the study area
Full size table

The influence of environmental variables on vegetation was further elaborated through correlation and linear regression analysis. EC, TDS, K, and MC show a significant positive correlation with vegetation, whereas phosphorus, altitude and aspect reveal a significant negative relationship with vegetation (Table 8). pH and phosphorus showed a significant positive relationship with the diversity index and species evenness. However, species richness and maturity index did not show a relationship with pH. EC, while TDS revealed a significant positive relationship with species evenness and maturity index. Potassium and clay show a positive correlation with species diversity index and maturity index (Table 8). Sand and altitude showed a significant positive correlation with species diversity index and maturity index. CaCO3 demonstrates a significant negative relationship with the diversity index, species evenness, species evenness and species richness. Similarly, aspect showed a significant negative association with the maturity index.

Table 8 Correlation and regression analysis of environmental variables with vegetation, diversity index (H'), species diversity index (SDI), species evenness (J), species richness (d) and species maturity index (MI)
Full size table

Discussion

The composition and diversity pattern of plant species are usually attributed to edaphic and environmental factors (Khan et al. 2017a, b; Rahman et al. 2021). In the present study a total of 252 species of 80 families were enlisted in the study area. It included 39 species of trees, 43 shrubs, 167 species of herbs and 3 climber species. Based on FIVs, the important families included Mimosaceae, Polygonaceae, Papilionaceae, Moraceae, Lamiaceae, Asteraceae, Rhamnaceae, Sapindaceae, Myrtaceae and Asclepiadaceae. Mimosaceae is virtually always the most diverse family throughout the subcontinent (Sher et al. 2011; Wariss et al. 2014). Papilionaceae has a dominant position in plant families (Zeb et al. 2017). Asteraceae, with more than 1620 genera and 23,600 species of herbs, shrubs and trees distributed throughout the world and is also one of the largest plant family (Carvalho et al. 2018). Similarly, Moraceae and Mimosaceae were also the important families in the present findings which agreed with the studies of Murad et al. (2013) and Ullah et al. (2016). The ranges of altitude have an important effect on qualitative and quantitative characteristics of species (Balick 2005; Arshad et al. 2014). As a whole, 12 communities were established on the basis of topographic and edaphic characteristics in 12 different stations.

In the current study, the dominant shrubs reported in various communities were Calotropis procera, Dodonaeaviscosa, Justicia adhatoda, Lantana camara, Saccharum bengalense, Vitex negundo and Ziziphus nummularia. In the current study, Dodonaeaviscosa was reported from 5 communities and Calotropis procera from 2 communities. The present findings are in line with (Haq et al. xxxx; Arshad et al. 2022) who reported Dodonaea viscosa as dominant species. Who (Majeed et al. 2021a) reported Calotropis procera as the dominant shrub species. Who (Qureshi et al. 2009; Majeed et al. 2021a) also found Saccharum as one of the dominant species. They (Ilyas et al. 2013, 2018) reported Vitex negundoas and Ziziphus dominant members of various plants communities in their research areas.

In the investigated attempt showed the dominant shrubs reported in various communities were Agrostis viridis, Arenaria serpyllifolia, Cynodondactylon, Emexspinosus, Euphorbia helioscopia, Medicago minima,Silybum marianum, Stellaria media and Tulipa clusiana. Emexspinosus Medicago minima and Stellaria media were recorded from 2 communities. The present findings agreed with (Sharma et al. 2017; Baruah et al. 2019) who recorded Stellaria media as a most commonly occurring species. Iqbal et al. (2017) reported Emexspinosusas the dominant species. They (Ahmad et al. 2017; Shinwari et al. 2017) reported Medicago minima as the dominant species of the vegetation around Havalian. Who (Zereen and Sardar 2015) recorded Euphorbia helioscopia as dominant species in a sub-community in Narowal district Punjab. They (Haq et al. xxxx; Zahoor et al. 2015) also reported Cynodon dactylon as the leading member of the plant community. Similarly, Ali et al. (2018) reported Arenaria serpyllifolia as the first dominant species in various communities from their studied area.

Plant life-form is a measurable trait and is also regarded as a potential indicator of prevailing environmental conditions (Gravel et al. 2006; Aubin et al. 2008). The leading life forms of the recorded communities were therophytes and hemicryptophytes. The therophytes as the dominant life form in the study area indicate human disturbances. The present findings also reported the dominance of therophytes like other studies (Hussain et al. 2015; Khan et al. 2018) in their studies. Severe deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion and human influence in the area reduces the phanerophytes and so therophytes appear to occupy the vacant niches (Dar et al. 2018; Haq et al. 2019; Abdo 2021). Evaluating leaf size spectra, an important ecological trait can help to understand climatic factors that structure the plant communities (Majeed et al. 2021c, 2022b). The leaf size spectrum of the present plant communities showed that the overall vegetation of the study area is dominated by microphylls and nanophylls. The results are in agreement with Majeed et al. (2020, 2022c, d) and Ullah et al. (2022a, b).

Species diversity is a significant character of vegetation that reflects the productivity and health of ecosystem which is under the control of complex of environmental variables (Khan et al. 2022; Tassadduq et al. 2022). The range of diversity indices values of the present communities are in line with previous literatures (Khoja et al. 2022; Majeed et al. 2022a), there was very less similarity in plant communities between the low elevation station and high elevation stations.

Environmental variables play a significant role in shaping species distribution and abundance (Khan et al. 2017a, b; Ullah et al. 2022a, b; Majeed et al. 2022b). To determine the influence of environmental variables on the vegetation in our study, we employed CA ordination, correlation and linear regression analysis. The CCA ordination of species and sites demonstrates that EC, TDS, MC, altitude, and aspect have significantly influence the vegetation in our study area. Similarly, a study in the Yakhtangay Hill of Shangala district, Pakistan yielded comparable results (Ullah et al. 2022a, b). This implies that the distribution pattern of species is primarily influenced by the environmental variables of an area (Khan et al. 2020; Iqbal et al. 2022; Rawat et al. 2022). The correlation and linear regression analysis revealed that pH, phosphorus, potassium and sand shows positive association with diversity indices, whereas pH, EC, TDS and phosphorus are strongly linked to species evenness. Among the environmental variables, EC, TDS, clay and altitude showed a positive association with the maturity index. Phosphorus is the only key environmental variable that exhibits a positive association with both species richness and evenness. The possible reason may be the high content of phosphorus in the study area. A high content promotes growth and development, creating more available niches and resources for other species. This increase in ecological niches and resources leads to increase in species richness and ultimately spices evenness. Similar to our study, other study also shown that environmental variables, particularly edaphic factors (soil properties) and topographic factors (such as slope and altitude), significantly influence the diversity indices of species (Nadal-Romero et al. 2014). CaCO3 and aspect showed negative relationships with vegetation indices. Study has demonstrated that slope and aspect are key limiting factors, exerting substantial influence over the spatial distribution of surface radiation (Bennie et al. 2008). This consequential influence subsequently affect patterns of evaporation dynamics and soil moisture content, which ultimately affects the species indices.

Conclusions

In the present vegetation study, 252 species (39 trees, 43 shrubs, 167 herbs, 3 climbers) of 80 families were recorded in the study area. The overall results of SI showed that there was low similarity (below 50%) among the various communities in different stations. Due to the similar altitude and topography, S1 × S11 and S5 × S6 showed the highest SI value while S3 × S10 and S3 × S9 showed lower SI values due to large variation in their altitude and moisture contents. The results of the present study revealed that all diversity indices (species diversity, evenness index, species richness index, maturity index) during spring showed that the communities which were established in plains lying at lower altitudes (S1, S2, S6, S9, S10, S11) had higher values while the communities formed at high altitudes (S3, S4, S8) had lower values. As a whole, 12 communities were established in 12 different stations with different topographic and edaphic characteristics. The present study revealed that all diversity indices for communities in plains lying at lower altitudes had higher values. It can be concluded that variation in edaphic factors and topographic factors significantly affect the species distribution and diversity indices.

Availability of data and materials

This research work is part of the PhD thesis of the first author. Species occurrence data is available on request to first author.

References

  • Abdo HG (2018) Impacts of war in Syria on vegetation dynamics and erosion risks in Safita area Tartous Syria. Reg Environ Chang 18(6):1707–1719. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10113-018-1280-3

  • Abdo HG (2021) Estimating water erosion using RUSLE, GIS and remote sensing in Wadi-Qandeel river basin, Lattakia, Syria. Proc Indian Natl Sci Acad 87(3):514–523

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Abdo HG, Almohamad H, Al Dughairi AA, Al-Mutiry M (2022) GIS-based frequency ratio and analytic hierarchy process for forest fire susceptibility mapping in the western region of Syria. Sustainability 14(8):4668. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14084668

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad SS, Erum S, Khan SM, Nawaz M (2014) An appraisal of ecological distribution of herbaceous flora at Changa Manga park Lahore, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 46:19–25

    Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad Z, Khan SM, Abd Allah EF et al (2016) Weed species composition and distribution pattern in the maize crop under the influence of edaphic factors and farming practices: a case study from Mardan, Pakistan. Saudi J Biol Sci 23:741–748. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.07.001

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad KS, Hamid A, Nawaz F et al (2017) Ethnopharmacological studies of indigenous plants in Kel village, Neelum Valley, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed 13:1–16. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-017-0196-1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad Z, Khan SM, Ali MI et al (2019) Pollution indicandum and marble waste polluted ecosystem; role of selected indicator plants in phytoremediation and determination of pollution zones. J Clean Prod. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.117709

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ahmad Z, Khan SM, Page S, Alamri S, Hashem M (2022) Plants predict the mineral mines—a methodological approach to use indicator plant species for the discovery of mining sites. J Adv Res 39:119–133

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ali M (2011) Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi. Program 8–8

  • Ali F, Khan N, Ali K, Khan I (2017) Influence of environmental variables on the distribution of woody species in Muslim graveyards of Malakand division, Hindukush range mountains of Pakistan. Pak J Bot 49:2357–2366

    Google Scholar 

  • Ali A, Desneux N, Lu Y, Wu K (2018) Key aphid natural enemies showing positive effects on wheat yield through biocontrol services in northern China. Agric Ecosyst Environ 266:1–9

  • Arshad MA, Mir AK, Mushtaq A et al (2014) Ethnobotanical and taxonomic screening of genus Morus for wild edible fruits used by the inhabitants of Lesser Himalayas-Pakistan. J Med Plants Res 8:889–898. https://doi.org/10.5897/jmpr2010.733

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Arshad F, Waheed M, Harun N et al (2022) Indigenous farmer’s perception about fodder and foraging species of Semi-arid lowlands of Pakistan: a case study of District Kasur, Pakistan. Taiwania 67:510–523. https://doi.org/10.6165/tai.2022.67.510

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aubin I, Messier C, Bouchard A (2008) Can plantations develop understory biological and physical attributes of naturally regenerated forests? Biol Conserv 141:2461–2476. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2008.07.007

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balick MJ (2005) The purposes and teaching of applied ethnobotany. Econ Bot 59:200–201. https://doi.org/10.1663/0013-0001(2005)059[0200:tpatoa]2.0.co;2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bano S, Khan SM, Alam J et al (2018) Eco-floristic studies of native plants of the Beer Hills along the Indus River in the districts Haripur and Abbottabad, Pakistan. Saudi J Biol Sci 25:801–810. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2017.02.009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baruah PS, Deka K, Lahkar L et al (2019) Habitat distribution modelling and reinforcement of Elaeocarpus serratus L.—a threatened tree species of Assam, India for improvement of its conservation status. Acta Ecol Sin 39:42–49. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2018.06.002

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bennie J, Huntley B, Wiltshire A (2008) Slope, aspect and climate: spatially explicit and implicit models of topographic microclimate in chalk grassland. Ecol Model 216(1):47–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2008.04.010

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bocksberger G, Schnitzler J, Chatelain C et al (2016) Climate and the distribution of grasses in West Africa. J Veg Sci 27:306–317. https://doi.org/10.1111/jvs.12360

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bürzle B, Schickhoff U, Schwab N et al (2017) Phytosociology and ecology of treeline ecotone vegetation in Rolwaling Himal, Nepal. Phytocoenologia 47:197–220. https://doi.org/10.1127/phyto/2017/0130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Caballero-Serrano V, McLaren B, Carrasco JC et al (2019) Traditional ecological knowledge and medicinal plant diversity in Ecuadorian Amazon home gardens. Glob Ecol Conserv. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00524

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Carvalho AR, Diniz RM, Suarez MAM et al (2018) Use of some asteraceae plants for the treatment of wounds: from ethnopharmacological studies to scientific evidences. Front Pharmacol 9:1–11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2018.00784

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Chandra N, Singh G, Rai ID, Mishra AP, Kazmi MY, Pandey A et al (2023) Predicting distribution and range dynamics of three threatened Cypripedium species under climate change scenario in Western Himalaya. Forests 14(3):633. https://doi.org/10.3390/f14030633

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Correia Filho WLF, de Oliveira-Júnior JF, Santiago DDB, Abdo HG, Almohamad H, Al Dughairi AA, da Silva Junior CA (2023) The assessment of climatic, environmental, and socioeconomic aspects of the Brazilian Cerrado. Ecol Process 12(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13717-023-00433-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dar JA, Sundarapandian S (2016) Patterns of plant diversity in seven temperate forest types of Western Himalaya, India. J Asia-Pac Biodivers 9:280–292. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2016.03.018

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dar MEUI, Gillani N, Shaheen H et al (2018) Comparative analysis of vegetation from eroded and non-eroded areas, a case study from Kashmir Himalayas, Pakistan. Appl Ecol Environ Res 16:1725–1737. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1602_17251737

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • da Silva JPC, Gonçalves PH, Albuquerque UP et al (2021) Can medicinal use protect plant species from wood uses? Evidence from Northeastern Brazil. J Environ Manag. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111800

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Bello F, Lavorel S, Lavergne S, Albert CH, Boulangeat I, Mazel F, Thuiller W (2013) Hierarchical effects of environmental filters on the functional structure of plant communities: a case study in the French Alps. Ecography 36:393–402

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • De Vries FT, Thébault E, Liiri M et al (2013) Soil food web properties explain ecosystem services across European land use systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 110:14296–14301. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1305198110

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Evaluation E, Sustainable FOR, Of U et al (2012) Ecological evaluation for sustainable utilization of Sincerely dedicated to my Parents

  • Gilchrist KFD, Ruby AN, Alexander KA, Alfred (2018) Medicinal plant use and conservation practices by communities in the Togo Plateau Forest Reserve, Ghana. J Med Plants Res 12:575–589. https://doi.org/10.5897/jmpr2018.6686

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gravel D, Canham CD, Beaudet M, Messier C (2006) Reconciling niche and neutrality: the continuum hypothesis. Ecol Lett 9:399–409. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1461-0248.2006.00884.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haq SM, Malik AH, Khuroo AA, Rashid I (2019) Floristic composition and biological spectrum of Keran—a remote valley of northwestern Himalaya. Acta Ecol Sin 39:372–379. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2018.12.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haq SM, Tariq A, Li Q et al (2022) Influence of edaphic properties in determining forest community patterns of the Zabarwan mountain range in the Kashmir Himalayas. Forests 13:1214

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haq SM, Yaqoob U, Majeed M, et al (2022) Quantitative ethnoveterinary study on plant resource utilization by indigenous communities in high-altitude regions. Front Vet Sci 9:944046

  • Hassan M, Haq SM, Majeed M et al (2022) Traditional food and medicine: ethno-traditional usage of fish fauna across the valley of Kashmir: a Western Himalayan Region. Diversity. https://doi.org/10.3390/d14060455

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hussain F, Shah SM, Badshah L, Durrani MJ (2015) Diversity and ecological characteristics of flora of Mastuj valley, district Chitral, Hindukush range, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 47:495–510

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ilyas M, Qureshi R, Shinwari ZK et al (2013) Some ethnoecological aspects of the plants of Qalagai hills, Kabal valley, Swat, Pakistan. Int J Agric Biol 15:801–810

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilyas M, Qureshi R, Akhtar N et al (2018) Floristic diversity and vegetation structure of the remnant subtropical broad leaved forests from Kabal Valley, Swat, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 50:217–230

    Google Scholar 

  • Ilyas M, Qureshi R, Haq Z et al (2020) Ecological evaluation of existing plant resources of Manrai Hills, Swat, Pakistan using multivariate analysis. Pak J Bot 52:1727–1736. https://doi.org/10.30848/PJB2020-5(43)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Iqbal M, Khan SM, Khan MA, Ahmad Z, Abbas Z, Khan SM, Khan MS (2017) Distribution pattern and species richness of natural weeds of wheat in varying habitat conditions of district Malakand, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 49(6):2371–2382

  • Iqbal J, Shaikh N, Ahmed M et al (2022) Floristic association of moist temperate forests of Shangla District, Delineated by a Multivariate Approach. Agronomy 12(7):1723. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12071723

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Jamil MD, Waheed M, Akhtar S et al (2022) Invasive plants diversity, ecological status, and distribution pattern in relation to edaphic factors in different habitat types of District Mandi Bahauddin, Punjab, Pakistan. Sustain 1:4. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142013312

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khan SM, Page S, Ahmad H et al (2014) Ethno-ecological importance of plant biodiversity in mountain ecosystems with special emphasis on indicator species of a Himalayan Valley in the northern Pakistan. Ecol Ind 37:175–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2013.09.012

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan M, Khan SM, Ilyas M et al (2017a) Plant species and communities assessment in interaction with edaphic and topographic factors; an ecological study of the mount Eelum District Swat, Pakistan. Saudi J Biol Sci 24:778–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.11.018

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khan M, Khan SM, Ilyas M et al (2017b) Plant species and communities assessment in interaction with edaphic and topographic factors; an ecological study of the mount Eelum District Swat, Pakistan. Saudi J Biol Sci 24(4):778–786. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.11.018

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khan W, Khan SM, Ahmad H et al (2018) Life forms, leaf size spectra, regeneration capacity and diversity of plant species grown in the Thandiani forests, district Abbottabad, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan. Saudi J Biol Sci 25:94–100. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2016.11.009

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khan AM, Qureshi R, Saqib Z et al (2019a) A first ever detailed ecological exploration of the western himalayan forests of sudhan gali and ganga summit, azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Appl Ecol Environ Res 17:15477–15505. https://doi.org/10.15666/aeer/1706_1547715505

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan AM, Qureshi R, Saqib Z (2019b) Multivariate analyses of the vegetation of the western Himalayan forests of Muzaffarabad district, Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. Ecol Indic 104:723–736. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2019.05.048

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan A, Ahmed M, Siddiqi MF et al (2020) Vegetation–environment relationship in conifer dominating forests of the mountainous range of Indus Kohistan in northern Pakistan. J Mt Sci 17(8):1989–2000. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11629-019-5562-0

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khan AM, Li Q, Saqib Z et al (2022) MaxEnt modelling and impact of climate change on habitat suitability variations of economically important Chilgoza Pine (Pinus gerardiana Wall.) in South Asia. Forests 13:1–23. https://doi.org/10.3390/f13050715

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Khoja AA, Haq SM, Majeed M et al (2022) Diversity, ecological and traditional knowledge of pteridophytes in the Western Himalayas. Diversity 14:628

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kumar S, Sharma S (2014) Diversity, disturbance and regeneration status of forests along an altitudinal gradient in Paddar Valley, North West Himalayas. Indian for 140:348–353

    Google Scholar 

  • Leonti M, Staub PO, Cabras S et al (2015) From cumulative cultural transmission to evidence-based medicine: evolution of medicinal plant knowledge in Southern Italy. Front Pharmacol 6:1–15. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphar.2015.00207

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leps̆ J, S̆milauer P (2006) Multivariate analysis of ecological data. https://doi.org/10.1890/0012-9623(2006)87[193:MAOED]2.0.CO;2

  • Majeed M, Bhatti KH, Amjad MS et al (2020) Ethno-veterinary uses of Poaceae in Punjab, Pakistan. PLoS ONE. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241705

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Majeed M, Bhatti KH, Amjad MS (2021a) Impact of climatic variations on the flowering phenology of plant species in Jhelum District, Punjab, Pakistan. Appl Ecol Environ Res 19:3343–3376

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majeed M, Bhatti KH, Pieroni A et al (2021b) Gathered wild food plants among diverse religious groups in Jhelum District, Punjab, Pakistan. Foods 10:594

  • Majeed M, Bhatti KH, Pieroni A et al (2021c) Gathered wild food plants among diverse religious groups in

  • Majeed M, Lu L, Haq SM et al (2022a) Spatiotemporal distribution patterns of climbers along an abiotic gradient in Jhelum District, Punjab, Pakistan. 1–16

  • Majeed M, Mahmood A, Habib T et al (2022b) Vegetation analysis and environmental indicators of an arid tropical forest ecosystem of Pakistan. Ecol Indic 142:109291. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2022.109291

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Majeed M, Tariq A, Haq SM et al (2022c) A detailed ecological exploration of the distribution patterns of Wild Poaceae from the Jhelum District (Punjab), Pakistan. Sustain. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14073786

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Majeed M, Tariq A, Haq SM et al (2022d) A detailed ecological exploration of the distribution patterns of Wild Poaceae from the Jhelum District (Punjab), Palistan. Sustainability 14:3786

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malik H (2013) Phytosociology of some weeds of wheat communities around Kotli fields, Western Himalaya. J Ecol Nat Environ 5:340–345. https://doi.org/10.5897/jene12.025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malik RN, Husain SZ (2006) Classification and ordination of vegetation communities of the Lohibehr reserve forest and its surrounding areas, Rawalpindi, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 38(3):543

    Google Scholar 

  • Mandal G, Joshi SP (2014) Analysis of vegetation dynamics and phytodiversity from three dry deciduous forests of Doon Valley, Western Himalaya, India. J Asia-Pac Biodivers 7:292–304. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.japb.2014.07.006

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Moeslund JE, Arge L, Bøcher PK et al (2013) Topographically controlled soil moisture drives plant diversity patterns within grasslands. Biodivers Conserv 22:2151–2166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-013-0442-3

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mulk Khan S, Page S, Ahmad H et al (2013) Phyto-climatic gradient of vegetation and habitat specificity in the high elevation Western Himalayas. Pak J Bot 45:223–230

    Google Scholar 

  • Murad W, Azizullah A, Adnan M et al (2013) Ethnobotanical assessment of plant resources of Banda Daud Shah, District Karak, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. https://doi.org/10.1186/1746-4269-9-77

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nadal-Romero E, Petrlic K, Verachtert E et al (2014) Effects of slope angle and aspect on plant cover and species richness in a humid Mediterranean badland. Earth Surf Proc Land 39(13):1705–1716. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.3549

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nisar MF, Jaleel F, Waseem M et al (2014) Ethno-medicinal Uses of Plants from District Bahawalpur, Pakistan. Curr Res J Biol Sci 6:183–190. https://doi.org/10.19026/crjbs.6.5191

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pande PK, Negi JDS, Sharma SC (2002) Plant species diversity, composition, gradient analysis and regeneration behavior of some tree species in a moist temperate western-Himalayan forest ecosystem. Indian for 128(8):869–886

    Google Scholar 

  • Pohl M, Graf F, Buttler A, Rixen C (2012) The relationship between plant species richness and soil aggregate stability can depend on disturbance. Plant Soil 355:87–102. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-011-1083-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Qureshi R, Waheed A, Arshad M, Umbreen T (2009) Medico-ethnobotanical inventory of Tehsil Chakwal, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 41:529–538

    Google Scholar 

  • Qureshi R, Ilyas M, Rahim G et al (2012) Ethnobotanical study of Bhera, District Sargodha, Pakistan. Arch Des Sci 65:690–1661

    Google Scholar 

  • Rahman AU, Khan SM, Khan S et al (2016) Ecological assessment of plant communities and associated edaphic and topographic variables in the Peochar Valley of the Hindu Kush Mountains. Mt Res Dev 36:332. https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd-journal-d-14-00100.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rahman ur A, Khan SM, Ahmad Z et al (2021) Impact of multiple environmental factors on species abundance in various forest layers using an integrative modeling approach. Glob Ecol Conserv. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gecco.2021.e01712

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rashid N, Gbedomon RC, Ahmad M et al (2018) Traditional knowledge on herbal drinks among indigenous communities in Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. J Ethnobiol Ethnomed. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13002-018-0217-8

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rawat B, Rawat JM, Purohit S et al (2022) A comprehensive review of Quercus semecarpifolia Sm.: an ecologically and commercially important Himalayan tree. Front Ecol Evol 10:961345–961351. https://doi.org/10.3389/fevo.2022.961345

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sciences P (2022) Environmental determinants of vegetation in District Malakand, a sub-tropical zone of the outer Hindu Kush Mountain Range. 20:339–361

  • Shah M, Sayyed A, Sherwani SK et al (2014) Ethno ecological study of fuel and timber wood species of the most important market of Khyber Pukhtoonkhwa, Pakistan. World Appl Sci J 31:420–426. https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.wasj.2014.31.04.14318

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaheen H, Khan SM, Harper DM et al (2011a) Species diversity, community structure, and distribution patterns in Western Himalayan Alpine Pastures of Kashmir. Pakistan Mt Res Dev 31:153. https://doi.org/10.1659/mrd-journal-d-10-00091.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaheen H, Khan SM, Harper DM et al (2011b) Species diversity, community structure, and distribution patterns in western Himalayan alpine pastures of Kashmir, Pakistan. Mt Res Dev 31:153–159. https://doi.org/10.1659/MRD-JOURNAL-D-10-00091.1

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shaheen H, Qureshi RA, Shinwari ZK (2011c) Structural diversity, vegetation dynamics and anthropogenic impact on lesser Himalayan subtropical forests of Bagh district, Kashmir. Pak J Bot 43:1861–1866

    Google Scholar 

  • Shaheen H, Ullah Z, Khan SM, Harper DM (2012) Species composition and community structure of western Himalayan moist temperate forests in Kashmir. For Ecol Manag 278:138–145

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sharma A, Singh H, Kumar N (2017) Studies on traditional knowledge of medicinal flora and its contribution to livelihood enhancement in the Doon-Valley, Uttrakhand (India). Int J Life-Sci Sci Res. https://doi.org/10.21276/ijlssr.2017.3.2.13

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sher Z, Khan ZUD, Hussain F (2011) Ethnobotanical studies of some plants of Chagharzai Valley, District Buner, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 43:1445–1452

    Google Scholar 

  • Shinwari S, Ahmad M, Luo Y, Zaman W (2017) Quantitative analyses of medicinal plants consumption among the inhabitants of Shangla-Kohistan areas in Northern-Pakistan. Pak J Bot 49:725–734

    Google Scholar 

  • Tassadduq SS, Akhtar S, Waheed M et al (2022) Ecological distribution patterns of wild grasses and abiotic factors

  • Ter Braak CJF (1987) The analysis of vegetation-environment relationships by canonical correspondence analysis. Vegetatio 69:69–77. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00038688

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tiwari S, Mishra RK (2016) Predicting suitability of tree species in various climatic conditions. Trop Plant Res 3(1):18–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Ullah H, Ullah S, Basar S (2016) Indigenous uses, knowledge, and population density of threatened medicinal plants in Gabral valley, district Swat of-Pakistan. J Entomol Zool Stud 4:448–451

    Google Scholar 

  • Ullah H, Khan SM, Jaremko M et al (2022a) Vegetation assessments under the influence of environmental variables from the Yakhtangay Hill of the Hindu-Himalayan range, North Western Pakistan. Sci Rep 12(1):20973. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-21097-4

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ullah I, Aslam B, Shah SHIA et al (2022b) An integrated approach of machine learning, remote sensing, and GIS data for the landslide susceptibility mapping. Land 11:1–20. https://doi.org/10.3390/land11081265

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • van Breugel M, Craven D, Lai HR et al (2019) Soil nutrients and dispersal limitation shape compositional variation in secondary tropical forests across multiple scales. J Ecol 107:566–581. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2745.13126

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wang J, Wang H, Cao Y, Bai Z, Qin Q (2016) Effects of soil and topographic factors on vegetation restoration in opencast coal mine dumps located in a Loess area. Sci Rep 6(1):1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Wariss HM, Pirzada SA, Alam K et al (2014) Flora of Lal Suhanra National Park, Bahawalpur, Punjab, Pakistan. Pak J Bot 46:1331–1341

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahoor AL, Yaqoob L, Shaukat SK et al (2015) Hepatoprotective medicinal plants used by the Gond and Bhill tribals of District Raisen Madhya Pradesh, India. J Med Plants Res 9:400–406. https://doi.org/10.5897/jmpr2015.5764

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeb U, Ali S, Li ZH et al (2017) Floristic diversity and ecological characteristics of weeds at Atto Khel Mohmand Agency, KPK, Pakistan. Acta Ecol Sin 37:363–367. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chnaes.2017.08.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zereen A, Sardar AA (2015) Multivariate analysis of environment-vegetation complex of Vehari district, Pakistan. Bangl J Bot 44:399–405. https://doi.org/10.3329/bjb.v44i3.38546

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors are thankful to those who directly or indirectly helped us during the study.

Funding

Not applicable.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Botany, University of Peshawar, Peshawar, Pakistan

    Hazrat Ali & Zahir Muhammad

  2. Department of Botany, University of Gujrat, Hafiz Hayat Campus, Gujrat, 50700, Punjab, Pakistan

    Muhammad Majeed

  3. Department of Botany, Government College, Women University Sialkot, Sialkot, 51310, Punjab, Pakistan

    Robina Aziz

  4. Department of Botany, University of Lakki Marwat, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan

    Adam Khan

  5. Department of Zoology, Faculty of Natural Sciences, Shah Abdul Latif University, Khairpur, 66111, Sindh, Pakistan

    Wali Muhammad Mangrio

  6. Geography Department, Faculty of Arts and Humanities, Tartous University, Tartous, Syria

    Hazem Ghassan Abdo

  7. Department of Geography, College of Arabic Language and Social Studies, Qassim University, Buraydah, 51452, Saudi Arabia

    Hussein Almohamad & Ahmed Abdullah Al Dughairi

Authors
  1. Hazrat Ali
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Zahir Muhammad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Muhammad Majeed
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robina Aziz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Adam Khan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Wali Muhammad Mangrio
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Hazem Ghassan Abdo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Hussein Almohamad
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Ahmed Abdullah Al Dughairi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Contributions

HA, ZM and MM: Methodology, HA, ZM and MM: Software and Data duration, MM, ZM, RA and AK: Formal analysis and investigation. MM, RA and WMM: visualization, AK, MM, HAL, WMM, AAA and HGA: Writing—original draft preparation, MM.; SF, HA, HGA and HA: Writing—review and editing, HGA, ZM, RB, HAL and AAA: Supervision. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Hazem Ghassan Abdo.

Ethics declarations

Competing interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Additional information

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Rights and permissions

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Ali, H., Muhammad, Z., Majeed, M. et al. Vegetation diversity pattern during spring season in relation to topographic and edaphic variables in sub-tropical zone. Bot Stud 64, 25 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40529-023-00398-5

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/s40529-023-00398-5

Keywords